SAMPLE APA RESEARCH PAPER WITH ANNOTATED WEBLIOGRAPHY

Sample APA Research Paper with Annotated Bibliography

Abstract
This paper provides a sample of an APA style research paper with an annotated bibliography. The purpose of this paper is to provide students with an example of an APA research paper. The paper is formatted to meet APA style standards and includes an example of an annotated webliography entry for each source used in the paper. The research paper itself focuses on examining two influential leaders in psychology, Sigmund Freud and B.F. Skinner, and their theories on human behavior. The annotated webliography provides bibliographic information for each source as well as a brief annotation evaluating each source.

Keywords: APA research paper, annotated bibliography, Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, human behavior.

Sample APA Research Paper on Freud and Skinner

Introduction
Psychology as a field of study seeks to understand and explain human thought, emotions, and behavior. Two influential theorists who made significant contributions to the development of psychological theories and our understanding of human behavior are Sigmund Freud and B.F. Skinner. While Freud focused on psychoanalysis and the unconscious influences on behavior, Skinner looked at behaviorism and principles of reinforcement to shape behavior. This paper will examine the theories of both Freud and Skinner and discuss their differing perspectives on human behavior.

Freud and Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud is considered one of the founders of modern day psychology and developed psychoanalysis as a new therapeutic approach. His psychoanalytic theories proposed that unconscious mental processes, especially unconscious desires and fears, have a significant influence on behavior (Freud, 1920). Freud believed that behaviors and psychological symptoms could be directly linked to unconscious drives and desires that originate from early childhood experiences. Through the process of psychoanalysis, hidden unconscious thoughts and desires could be brought to conscious awareness to provide relief from psychological distress (Freud, 1913). Some of Freud’s best-known theoretical constructs include the id, ego and superego; defense mechanisms; the unconscious; and the Oedipus complex. Freud revolutionized how psychologists thought about human motivation and the origins of psychopathology. Although his theories were not scientifically validated, they opened new avenues for exploring the role of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Skinner and Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner was another prominent figure who shaped psychology through his approach known as radical behaviorism. Where Freud focused on inner subjective experiences, Skinner argued behavior should be explained solely based on observable, measurable stimulus-response relationships without reference to internal mental states (Skinner, 1938). Skinner believed that behavior is determined or controlled by its consequences rather than internal cognitive or emotional factors. His theory of operant conditioning proposes that behavior followed by positive reinforcement will increase in frequency whereas behavior followed by punishment will decrease. Skinner conducted extensive experimental research on schedules of reinforcement using animal subjects in what became known as the Skinner box. He went on to apply principles of operant conditioning to explain all human and nonhuman behavior (Skinner, 1953). Skinner had a significant influence on behavior therapy and the applied field of behavior modification which seeks to alter behavior through consequences like rewards and reinforcement. Throughout his career, Skinner criticized psychoanalytic theories as unscientific and too focused on unobservable mental processes.

Differing Views on Free Will and Determinism
One area where Freud and Skinner significantly differed in perspective was on issues of free will versus determinism in human behavior. Psychoanalytic theory allowed that unconscious drives and past experiences could place constraints on behavior but still allowed for the possibility of choice and free will. Freud believed humans possess some level of agency and choice over their behaviors (Freud, 1915). In contrast, radical behaviorism maintains that all behavior is determined and a function of the interaction between hereditary/biological factors and environmental variables. Skinner (1971) was a strict behaviorist who conceptualized free will as an illusion and claimed behavior is strictly governed by principles of reinforcement and punishment from the environment. Skinner denied any role of conscious choice or willpower in determining behavior, which was a controversial viewpoint at the time. These differing stances on issues of determinism versus free will were a major point of divergence between psychoanalytic and behaviorist perspectives.

Discussion
While Freud and Skinner developed psychological theories from differing philosophical positions, both significantly advanced our understanding of human behavior. Psychoanalytic theory brought attention to unconscious influences and the role of early childhood experiences in shaping later behavior patterns. Behaviorism promoted a more scientifically rigorous approach by focusing only on objectively observable behavior rather than subjective mental states and introduced principles of reinforcement that have widespread application. Despite differing on key issues like determinism versus free will, Freud and Skinner each left an enduring legacy that continues to influence modern psychology in different ways. Both focused on observed behaviors and symptoms as clues to uncover deeper causal processes operating below the surface, whether unconscious drives or environmental contingencies of reinforcement. While scientific evidence and standards of evaluation have evolved since their time, Freud and Skinner established new frameworks that represented major paradigm shifts, inspiring future generations of scholars to build upon and continue developing psychological theories. Together they represent the origins of the two major perspectives, psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which shaped contemporary approaches.

Annotated Bibliography
Freud, S. (1913). On beginning the treatment (Further recommendations on the technique of psycho-analysis I). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911-1913): The case of schizophrenia, p. 121-144. London: Hogarth Press.

This seminal paper by Freud discusses techniques for beginning psychoanalysis and analyzing dreams. It provides valuable insight into Freud’s clinical process and methodology. As an original source published during Freud’s lifetime, it offers authority on Freudian theory directly from the theorist himself. Freud’s case studies and theorizing lack formal empirical validation.

Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. In Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 159-204). London: Hogarth Press.

This paper outlines Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind and its importance in influencing behavior. As a primary source, it articulates Freud’s theory directly but without scientific testing of hypotheses. Nonetheless, it was highly influential in establishing the unconscious as a core construct in psychology. The theoretical insights in this paper continue to be discussed and built upon in current psychoanalytic thinking.

Freud, S. (1920). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. Authorized translation by G. Stanley Hall. New York: Boni and Liveright. Retrieved from https://www.bartleby.com/276/

This comprehensive book provides an accessible overview of Freudian psychoanalytic theory aimed at a general audience. As an original source published during Freud’s lifetime, it conveys his ideas directly. Some of Freud’s case examples lack scientific rigor. Still, the work had tremendous influence in popularizing psychoanalysis and remains valuable for understanding Freud’s systemic theory in its entirety. It is freely available full text online through Project Gutenberg.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.

This seminal work outlines Skinner’s theory of radical behaviorism and his research methodology of operant conditioning. As the original primary source introducing behaviorism, it had an enormous scholarly influence. Its theoretical arguments are not empirically validated. Still, it established the experimental analysis of behavior as a new research paradigm. For students of behaviorism, it offers indispensable insights into Skinner’s perspective directly from the developer of the approach.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.

This book aims to extend behaviorist principles developed through experimental animal research to explain all human conduct, emotions and thought. As a seminal primary source, it influentially promoted a behaviorist worldview. Some of the theoretical links between animal research and human action have been critiqued. The work remains highly regarded for its contribution in applying behaviorism to the study of people. It remains a cornerstone text for understanding Skinner’s radical perspective on human behavior and psychology more broadly.

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Knopf.

In this controversial book, Skinner strongly defends his viewpoint that free will is an illusion and behavior is entirely controlled by its consequences. As an original primary source, it powerfully conveys Skinner’s radical behaviorist philosophy. Skinner’s denial of free will was a highly debated position at the time. While provocative, some of Skinner’s theoretical arguments were not empirically validated. Nonetheless, it sparked much discussion around issues of autonomy versus determinism that remain a topic of interest today. The book outlined Skinner’s mature perspective on these issues.

This sample APA research paper combined with an annotated bibliography provides a model for students of APA style formatting, integration of sources, and inclusion of bibliographic entries with brief annotations. While the research topic chosen focused on Sigmund Freud and B.F. Skinner’s theories of human behavior, this paper could serve as a template for papers on any research topic utilizing in-text citations and a reference list according to APA style guidelines. The annotated bibliography portion demonstrates how to concisely evaluate and synthesize secondary sources included in the paper. Overall, this paper offers an example of key components of research and writing expected at the undergraduate college level.