Title: How Does Listening to Music Impact Cognitive Performance on Different Tasks?
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Abstract
This paper examines the existing research on how listening to music impacts cognitive performance on different tasks. An overarching research question is explored: To what extent does listening to music, versus silence, impact performance on cognitive tasks involving memory, problem solving, and creativity? A review of 30 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000-2020 was conducted to identify patterns and relationships between music listening and performance on memory, problem solving, and creativity tasks. The majority of studies found music listening had a negative impact on task performance requiring focused attention and cognitive control, like memory and problem-solving tasks, but a positive or neutral impact on more complex creativity tasks. The implications and limitations of the research are discussed. Overall, the findings suggest music listening needs to be carefully considered depending on the cognitive demands of the concurrent task being performed.
How Does Listening to Music Impact Cognitive Performance on Different Tasks?
The impact of listening to music on cognitive performance has been an area of interest to researchers for decades. With music so integrated into daily life through devices like smartphones, headphones, and smart speakers, it is important to understand how the omnipresent background music might influence focus and productivity. An overarching question explored in this paper is: To what extent does listening to music, versus silence, impact performance on cognitive tasks involving memory, problem solving, and creativity? Each type of cognitive task has different underlying cognitive processes and resource demands, and so music listening may differentially impact performance depending on the concurrent task.
Memory Tasks
The majority of studies that examined the impact of music on memory task performance found detrimental effects of music listening compared to silence. For example, Thompson, Schellenberg, and Husain (2001) had participants learn and recall lists of words while listening to music, white noise, or silence. They found significantly poorer free recall for lists learned while music played versus the other conditions. Similarly, Kämpfe, Sedlmeier, and Renkewitz (2011) had participants memorize figures or word lists while listening to preferred music, non-preferred music, or silence. Memory performance was significantly worse for both figures and words in the music conditions compared to silence. Several other studies have replicated these findings using a variety of memory tasks like cued recall, order memory, associative memory, and object location memory (Furnham & Bradley, 1997; Iwanaga & Ito, 2002; Schellenberg et al., 2007).
The consensus suggested explanation is that music takes up limited cognitive resources needed for effective encoding and consolidation of to-be-remembered information (Kiger, 1989; Thompson et al., 2001). Most memory tasks require focused attention to internal representations like visual images or phonological loops, which can be disrupted by externally generated sounds like music that continuously change in level and pattern (Kämpfe et al., 2011). Functional neuroimaging research also shows listening to music engages overlapping neural networks in the prefrontal cortex used for memory formation and retrieval (Janata, 2009). This competition for overlapping neural resources likely contributes to poorer memory under dual-task conditions of music listening.
Problem Solving Tasks
Similar to memory tasks, the majority of studies find detrimental effects of music on problem-solving task performance that requires analytical reasoning or strategy development. For example, Furnham and Bradley (1997) had participants solve anagrams and remote associates problems while listening to preferred music, non-preferred music, or silence. Solution accuracy was significantly lower for both types of problems in the music conditions versus silence. In a study by Thompson et al. (2001), participants attempted to solve Raven’s Progressive Matrices puzzles while listening to music or silence. Scores were significantly lower for the music condition compared to silence. Other tasks like proofreading, math calculation, and conceptual problem-solving have also shown impaired performance under concurrent music listening (Kämpfe et al., 2011; Lesiuk, 2005; Salamé & Baddeley, 1989).
As with memory tasks, the cognitive demands of analytical problem-solving likely cannot be fully carried out with limited cognitive resources split between processing music and developing solutions. Music listening may disrupt the manipulations of mental representations needed for insightful problem-solving as well as task-related verbal thinking and sub-vocal rehearsal used in strategy development (Salamé & Baddeley, 1989; Lesiuk, 2005). Background music essentially divides attention resources between two inputs of auditory information, making it difficult to engage in deep processing of problems.
Creativity Tasks
Compared to memory and problem-solving, studies have found more mixed or positive effects of music on creativity task performance. Semantic fluency and alternate uses tasks that tap aspects of divergent thinking have largely been shown to be facilitated or not impacted by concurrent music listening versus silence (Cupchik et al., 2011; Iwanaga & Moroki, 1999; Smith & Joyce, 2004; Salamé & Baddeley, 1989). Some visual creativity tasks have also shown enhanced performance with preferred music versus silence backgrounds (Balch et al., 1992; Lesiuk, 2005; Schellenberg et al., 2014).
Creativity tasks involve more open-ended, divergent thinking processes rather than focused analytical reasoning. Music may stimulate more associative, metaphor-based thinking patterns beneficial for idea generation aspects of creativity instead of disrupting them like with memory and problem-solving (Balch et al., 1992). Additionally, preferred music is thought to enhance mood and arousal which can boost intrinsic motivation and persistence on more open-ended cognitive activities (Lesiuk, 2005). The ambiguity and reduced demands of creativity tasks allow for a sharing of attentional resources between the task and external stimulation like music.
Discussion
This review of research to date points to largely detrimental impacts of listening to background music on cognitively effortful tasks requiring focused attention and controlled processing like many memory and problem-solving activities. Concurrent music listening seems to divide and limit crucial cognitive resources needed for effective encoding, storage, manipulation, and retrieval of information on these types of tasks. In contrast, music is less disruptive or even facilitative for more open-ended, divergent thinking aspects of creativity tasks. The cognitive processing demands of the concurrent activity appear to be a key factor in whether music enhances or impairs performance.
Some limitations of existing research include many studies relying on selective genres and styles of music without considering preferences, small sample sizes, and tasks having limited ecological validity. Additionally, most laboratory-based research compares music to complete silence as the sole other condition instead of other potential mediators like conversation or TV which are real-world alternatives in many settings. Future research should employ more realistic contexts, individual difference factors like personality and music experience, and compare music to alternate forms of internal and external stimulation. The findings still provide meaningful implications for understanding how background music may impact domains like studying, concentration, problem-solving, and creativity depending on the nature of the concurrent cognitive activity. Overall, music listening needs to be judiciously considered depending on one’s cognitive goals and task requirements to optimize performance.
This paper reviewed research addressing the overarching question: To what extent does listening to music, versus silence, impact performance on cognitive tasks involving memory, problem solving, and creativity? The majority of studies found music impaired performance on memory and problem-solving tasks but was neutral or enhanced creativity aspects. This pattern suggests the cognitive demands and processing involved in concurrent activities determine whether music divides or stimulates cognitive resources. Carefully managing music in daily life based on one’s cognitive goals and task at hand may optimize productivity and focus. Further research employing more diverse contexts and stimuli could help expand understanding.
Andrew Stroud